The alumni of the Maronite College of Rome were instrumental in translating and disseminating Middle Eastern knowledge across Europe. Their work encompassed diverse disciplines, including Religious Studies, Theology, Geography, Cartography, Anthropology, Mathematics, Astronomy, Biblical Studies, Linguistics, Cultural Studies, Nutrition, Canon Law, and Oriental Studies.

In particular, Maronite scholars in Europe exhibited a distinctive approach to integrating Arabic and Islamic knowledge. They balanced intellectual curiosity with their religious and cultural commitments, aiming to present Arabic and Islamic texts as sources of universal wisdom while aligning with European expectations (Heyberger, 2010). However, their translations navigated complex religious and cultural sensitivities, often masking genuine interest in Islamic thought behind frameworks that aligned with anti-Protestant debates or Catholic defenses (Rietbergen, 1989). Consequently, they frequently adapted or omitted Islamic terminology, drawing instead on pre-Islamic and early Christian Arabic literature (Girard, 2017).

Furthermore, Maronite scholars who taught and published in France were specialized linguists proficient in classical Arabic. With the increasing Lebanese presence at the Collège Royal and Oriental publishing houses in the 17th century, biblical Arabic usage grew, gradually overshadowing Quranic Arabic. As a result, textbooks for learning Arabic were primarily translations of biblical texts, featuring vocalized Arabic along with Latin translations. Among these, the Psalter became a key language manual for Arabic scholars (Abou-Nohra, 2001).

For example, Abraham Ecchellensis (Ibrahim al-Ḥāqilānī) translated and published several significant Arab and Islamic works, including Mukhtaṣar Maqāṣid Ḥikmat Falāsifat al-ʿArab (The Summary of the Objectives of the Wisdom of Arab Philosophers) in Paris in 1641 for Judge Mīr Ḥusayn al-Mubaydī. Additionally, he published Bulūgh al-Ḥikmah (Attaining Wisdom) from an Arabic manuscript in Paris in 1646 and a treatise on animals, plants, and precious stones from the manuscript of ʿAbd al-Raḥmān. Moreover, he translated a treatise by al-Suyūṭī in Paris in 1647 (ʿAqqīqī, 1964).

Similarly, Gabriel Sionita (Jibrāʾīl al-Ṣahyūnī), Joannes Hesronita (Yūḥannā al-Ḥaṣrūnī) translated a section of al-Idrisi's Nuzhat al-Mushtāq fī Ikhtirāq al-Āfāq (commonly known as Tabula Rogeriana) into Latin, focusing on the Nubian region, and published it in Paris in 1619. This translation was supplemented in the same year with a study on the Levant cities, religions, and customs. It was republished later in Amsterdam in 1633 and in 1635 (Moukarzel & Issa, 2023).

In a related vein, Ludovico Marracci, a Catholic cleric and Chair of Arabic at the University of Rome, La Sapienza, learned Arabic from Maronite scholars in Rome. With their assistance, Marracci produced a comprehensive Latin edition of the Quran in 1698, which included the original Arabic text for each sura, Marracci's Latin translation, and detailed annotations (Tolan, 2024).

Likewise, Miguel Casiri (Mikha’il al-Ghazīrī) translated Shams al-Ḥikmah (The Sun of Wisdom). from Arabic into Latin, as well as summaries of al-Iḥāṭah and al-Lamḥah by Ibn al-Khaṭīb into Latin in 1770 (ʿAqqīqī, 1964).

Simone Assemani (Simʿān al-Simʿānī) authored a study on the origin, doctrine, and literature of the Arabs before Islam, published in Padua in 1780. He also published a study on Kufic script in Padua during 1787-1788, and al-Qubbah al-Kūfiyyah al-ʿArabiyyah (The Arabic Kufic Dome) in Padua in 1790. Additionally, he wrote Hal kāna lil-ʿArab athar fī al-shiʿr al-ūrūbī al-ḥadīth? (Did the Arabs Influence Modern European Poetry?) in 1807 and described some Kufic coins at the Memmone Exhibition in Milan in 1820 (ʿAqqīqī, 1964).

Through these efforts, Maronite scholars strategically bridged Eastern knowledge with Western scholarship, reflecting their role as intermediaries between diverse intellectual traditions while adhering to their cultural and religious frameworks. Such adaptations made Arabic more accessible to European audiences, reducing apprehension and increasing interest in learning the language.

Overall, Maronite scholars’ efforts facilitated the integration of sophisticated Eastern knowledge into European thought, establishing a crucial link in linguistic, theological, and scientific realms. By advancing geographical understanding, introducing mathematical innovations, producing multilingual Bible editions, and documenting comprehensive legal libraries, they enriched European scholarship. Furthermore, their translations also brought Eastern cultural and scientific insights to the forefront, influencing ecclesiastical studies and contributing to astronomical and cartographical advancements. In doing so, their contributions impacted both the Ottoman and Levantine knowledge environments as well as the European intellectual landscape.

The following highlights their significant contributions and the impact of their scholarly endeavors.

Scholarly Contributions and Publications include:

1. Sionita, Antonius. (1590-1591). Evangelium sanctum domini nostri Iesu Christi. Rome: In Typographia Medicea.
This edition features an interlinear Latin translation by Antonius Sionita, a Maronite scholar renowned for his expertise in Syriac and Arabic languages. Sionita's work represents a significant effort to bridge linguistic and theological gaps between Eastern and Western Christian traditions.

2. Sionita, Gabriel, & Hesronita, Ioannes. (1619). Geographia Nubiensis idest accuratissima totius orbis in septem climata. Paris: Ex Typographia Hieronymi Blageart.
Co-translated into Latin by Gabriel Sionita and Ioannes Hesronita, this geographical work of Idrissi provides a meticulous description of the world's climates and regions.

3. Sionita, Gabriel, & Hesronita, Ioannes. (1619). De nonnullis Orientalium urbibus nec non indigenarum religione ac moribus. Paris: Apud Hieronymi Blageart. Reprinted in Arabia seu Arabum vicinarumque gentium Orientalium leges, ritus, sacri et profani mores, instituta et historia. Amsterdam: Apud Ioannem Ianssonium, 1633.
This work discusses various Eastern cities and their customs and religions. It was later included in a comprehensive collection of Oriental laws and customs, showcasing the Maronite scholars' deep engagement with Eastern cultures and practices.

4. Hesronita, Michael. (1637). Calendarium. Rome.
Michael Hesronita’s Calendarium provides detailed information on calendar systems, underscoring the Maronite scholars' contributions to timekeeping and calendar studies.

5. Ecchellensis, Abraham, & Borellus, Alexander. (1661). Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum libri V, VI, VII, paraphraste Abalphato Asphahanensi nunc primum editi. Florence: Ex Typ. J. Cocchini.
This publication offers a Latin translation of Apollonius of Perga’s works on conic sections, translated from Arabic by Abalphato Asphahanensi. It highlights the Maronite scholars' role in transmitting advanced mathematical knowledge to Europe.

6. Sionita, Gabriel, Hesronita, Ioannes & Ecchellensis, Abraham. (1645). Biblia sacra hebraica, samaritana, chaldaica, Graeca, Syriaca, Latina et Arabica (10 vols). Paris: Typis Antonii Vitré.
This comprehensive Bible edition includes texts in multiple languages, with Maronite scholars responsible for the Syriac and Arabic translations and editions, reflecting their critical role in biblical studies.

7. Naironus, Faustus. (1671). De saluberrima potione cahue seu cafe nuncupata discursus… Rome: Typis Michaelis Herculis
Faustus Naironus explores the health benefits of coffee in this influential treatise, showcasing the Maronite scholars' interest in cultural and scientific studies.

8. Assemani, Giuseppe Simone. (1762-1766). Bibliotheca juris orientalis canonici et civilis (5 vols). Rome: Ex Typogr. Komarek.
Giuseppe Simone Assemani’s multi-volume work is a comprehensive library on Oriental canon and civil law, demonstrating his expertise in legal studies and his contributions to the field of Oriental law.

9. Hodar, Pietro, & Scidiac, Elias. (1767). Canonum Ecclesiae Hispanae. [Manuscript, Biblioteca Nacional de España, 4905-4906.]
This manuscript provides a detailed collection of the canons of the Spanish Church, co-authored by Hodar and Scidiac, reflecting their involvement in ecclesiastical legal studies.

10. Assemani, Simone. (1790). Globus caelestis culico-arabicus veliterni musei Borgiani. Padua: Typ. Seminarii. 
Simone Assemani’s Globus caelestis features a celestial globe with Arabic annotations, showcasing his contributions to astronomy and cartography.

Photo Credits

Fig. 9.1: Ecchellensis, A., & Borellus, A. (1661). Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum libri V, VI, VII, paraphraste Abalphato Asphahanensi nunc primum editi. Florence: ex typ. J. Cocchini. USEK Library, ePat. 7
Fig. 9.2: Sionita, G., & Hesronita, J. (1619). Geographia Nubiensis idest accuratissima totius orbis in septem climata. Paris: ex typographia Hieronymi Blageart. USEK Library, ePat. 94
Fig. 9.3: Sionita, G., & Hesronita, J. (1619). De nonnullis Orientalium urbibus nec non indigenarum religione ac moribus. Paris: apud Hieronymi Blageart. Reprinted in Arabia seu Arabum vicinarumque gentium Orientalium leges, ritus, sacri et profani mores, instituta et historia. Amsterdam: apud Ioannem Ianssonium, 1633. USEK Library, Pat. 198
Fig. 9.4: Assemani, S. (1790). Globus caelestis culico-arabicus veliterni musei Borgiani. Padua: typ. Seminarii. USEK Library, Pat. 542
Fig. 9.5: Sionita, A. (1590-1591). Evangelium sanctum domini nostri Iesu Christi. Rome: in typographia Medicea. [The interlinear Latin translation is ascribed to the Maronite Antonius Sionita.]. USEK Library, Pat. 46
Fig. 9.6: Hesronita, M. (1637). Calendarium. Rome. USEK Library, ePat. 87
Fig. 9.7: Sionita, G., Hesronita, J., & Ecchellensis, A. (1645). Biblia sacra hebraica, samaritana, chaldaica, Graeca, Syriaca, Latina et Arabica (10 vols). Paris: typis Antonii Vitré. [The Maronite scholars were responsible for the Syriac and Arabic texts and translation.]. USEK Library, Pat. 519
Fig. 9.8: Naironus, F. (1671). Discorso della Salutifera Bevanda Kahve, ò vero Café. Rome: per Michele Hercole. USEK Library, ePat. 99
Fig. 9.9: Assemani, J. (1762-1766). Bibliotheca juris orientalis canonici et civilis (5 vols). Rome: ex typogr. Komarek. USEK Library, Pat. 2250
Fig. 9.10: Hodar, P., & Scidiac, E. (1767). Canonum Ecclesiae Hispanae. [Manuscript, Biblioteca Nacional de España, 4905-4906.] Courstesy of Biblioteca Nacional de España, mss. 4905-4906

References

• Abou-Nohra, J. (2001, October 26-27). L'apport des intellectuels libanais à l'orientalisme français: Le rôle des élèves du Collège Maronite de Rome au XVIIe siècle. Paper presented at the Colloque: Diversité culturelle et francophonie, Rencontres internationales francophones, Beyrouth.
• ʿAqqīqī, N. (1964). Kitāb al-Mustrashriqūn (3rd ed.). Dār al-Maʿārif. Cairo, Egypt.
• Girard, A. (2017). Teaching and Learning Arabic in Early Modern Rome: Shaping a Missionary Language. In J. Loop, J. A. Hamilton, & C. Burnett (Eds.), The Teaching and Learning of Arabic in Early Modern Europe (pp. 189–212). Brill.
• Heyberger, B. (2010). L’islam et les Arabes chez un érudit maronite au service de l’Église catholique (Abraham Ecchellensis). Al-Qanṭara, 31(2), 481–512. https://doi.org/10.3989/alqantara.2010.v31.i2.240
• Joseph Moukarzel et Mireille Issa. (2023). Bref traité de quelques villes orientales, de la religion et des mœurs de leurs indigènes. Traduction et annotation du De nonnullis Orientalium urbibus, nec non indigenarum religione ac moribus, tractatus brevis de Gabriel Sionita et Jean Hesronite, édition de 1619, Paris, Jérôme Blageart, Brepols (Miroir de l’Orient musulman, 12).
• Moukarzel, J., & Issa, M. (Eds.). (2023). Bref traité de quelques villes orientales, de la religion et des mœurs de leurs indigènes (Vol. 12). Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols. (Miroir de l'Orient Musulman).
• Rietbergen, P. J. A. N. (1989). A Maronite Mediator Between Seventeenth-Century Mediterranean Cultures: Ibrāhīm Al- Ḥakīlānī, or Abraham Ecchellense (1605-1664) Between Christendom and Islam. LIAS, 16(1). https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/2066/105311/105311.pdf?sequence=1
• Tolan, J. (2024), ‘The Enlightenment prophet: Muhammad in early modern Europe’, Journal of the British Academy, 12(1/2): a07. https://doi.org/10.5871/jba/012.a07