Pioneering Voices of the Diaspora: Maronite Literary Landscapes and Their Resonance
The migration of Maronites from Lebanon and the Levant to different parts of the world, particularly during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, marked a significant chapter in both the cultural history of their homeland and their adopted nations. Among the most influential contributions of this diaspora was in the realm of literature, as discussed in Panel 19 (Literary Contributions), and journalism, covered in Panel 20. Maronite authors, dispersed across continents in what came to be known as al-Mahjar, crafted a distinct voice that resonated with the complex dynamics of displacement, identity, and cultural fusion.
Furthermore, the term al-Mahjar (Land of Migration) stems from the word
hijrah (migration), referring to the countries where Levantines emigrated and settled, particularly in North and South America. It also denotes the modern literary school developed by these emigrants in their new environments (Saylor, 2021). This literary school evolved into a unique movement led by Maronite and other Oriental Christian writers. It came to encompass two key forms:
Adab al-Mahjar (Diasporic Literature) and Sahafat al-Mahjar (Diasporic Journalism). As Kleinhofa (2017) suggests, this Mahjar literary genre represented a transnational and hybrid movement, emerging at a critical time in the history of the Near East under Ottoman rule, as well as amidst socio-political changes in the countries of the diaspora and the international arena.
In addition, the education, culture, and political thought flourishing in Lebanon and the Levant, as presented in the previous panels, gave rise to intellectuals who migrated to cities like Egypt, Paris, New York, Buenos Aires, São Paulo, and Mexico City due to various personal, socio-economic, and political circumstances. Carrying this intellectual heritage, they encountered new ideas and values in their respective environments. This fusion of ideas invigorated their thinking and writing, ultimately leading to the creation of this new literary genre.
Fig. 19.1: Farhat, G. (1849).
Arabic Dictionary. (Arabic).
ed. by R. Dahdah. Marseille
Fig. 19.2: El-Tehelibi (1861). Arabic Grammar. (Arabic). ed. by R. Dahdah. Paris
Fig. 19.3: Korkmaz, G. (1899).
The Book of the True Word
on the Religion of the Messiah.
(Arabic). Philadelphia: Al-Hudā
Fig. 19.4: Karam, A. (1906).
Badi’a and Fouad. (Arabic).
New York: Al-Hudā
Prominent figures of this movement included writers such as
Khalil Gibran,
Mikhail Naimy,
Ameen Rihani,
Elia Abu Madi,
Naoum Moukarzel, and
Naoum Labaki. These Mahjari writers exemplified the movement by navigating the complexities of cultural duality. In the words of Cohen (2006), “the tension between an ethnic, a national, and a transnational identity is often a creative, enriching one,” and this dynamic was clearly evident in their literary contributions, with recurrent themes such as nationalism, nostalgia, secularism, political thought, and memory.
Maronite emigrant intellectuals were the architects of various literary institutions. Initially, these started as informal gatherings to discuss political and literary issues, but they gradually developed into formal associations. One of the first such associations was Riwāq al-Maʿarrī (The Gallery of Al-Maʿarrī), founded by
Naoum Labaki in São Paulo in 1900. Another, more universally known, was al-Rābiṭa al-Qalamiyya (The Pen League), founded in New York in 1920 by
Khalil Gibran and Mikhail Naimy. Yet another was al-ʾUṣbah al-Andalusiyya (The Andalusian League) founded in São Paulo in 1933. These literati, fueled by interests in mysticism, spirituality, modernity, philosophy, and democracy, sought to rethink Arabic as a medium. Naimy, as Secretary of the Pen League, documented this vision: “to lift Arabic literature from the quagmire of stagnation and imitation, and to infuse new life into its veins so as to make it an active force in the building of Arab nations… To imitate them [the ancients] is a deadly shame… We must be true to ourselves if we would be true to our ancestors” (al-Rābiṭah al-Qalamīyah, 1920).
Moreover, this vision of renewing Arabic literature extended beyond the members of the Pen League. Other intellectuals from across the Levantine diaspora shared similar goals. As Dakhli (2014) reveals, many of these authors traveled between the Near East and cities like New York, São Paulo, Cairo, Paris, London, Geneva, and Lebanon. Their communication with other writers and thinkers fostered the formation of a transnational intellectual community, which contributed to the development of diasporic literature.
Fig. 19.5: Milki, A. (1917).
Tales. (Arabic). New York:
Al-Hudā
Fig. 19.6: Abbott, J. (1926). Alexander the Great (Arabic, translated by Al-Hudā team). New York: Al-Hudā
Fig. 19.7: Neffaa, L. (1943).
Líbano: Hilvanes para una
reseña. Montevideo
Fig. 19.8: Gibran, K. (1945). Sand and Foam. New York: A. Knopf
Maronite authors like Gibran and Rihani became key figures in what could be termed a "globalized" Arabic literature. Gibran’s The Prophet (1923) is one of the most prominent examples of this phenomenon, blending mystical Eastern themes with Western philosophical inquiry to create a work that transcends cultural and national boundaries, reaching universalism. This genre intricately weaves together elements of Eastern spirituality and Western modernity, as these and other authors acted as cultural intermediaries, revitalizing Arabic literary traditions while contributing to an intercultural dialogue.
Through their writings, Mahjar authors not only reshaped Arabic literature but also influenced the literary traditions of their adopted countries. They merged Middle Eastern poetic, philosophical, and narrative techniques with Western styles, addressing themes such as exile, nostalgia, alienation, nationalism, and the search for identity in foreign cultural settings. This literary fusion gave rise to a unique body of work reflective of their multifaceted identities and the transformative nature of migration.
Fig. 19.9: Bouwari, B. (1926).
Memoirs of Four Years of War,
1914-1918. (Arabic). New York:
Al-Hudā
Fig. 19.10: Estefan, K. (1928).
The Precious Summary in
Introducing the Catholic
and the Church. (Arabic).
New York: Al-Hudā
Fig. 19.11: Moukarzel, N. (1932).
Selected Thoughts
(Arabic, vol. 1).
New York: Al-Hudā
Fig. 19.12: Ziade, May (1911). Fleurs de rêves. Paris: Isis Copia
Authors like Khalil Gibran and Ameen Rihani embraced modernity by integrating Western Enlightenment ideals, secularism, and progressive thought into their work. These intellectuals also played a fundamental role in negotiating various forms of nationalism, advocating for coexistence and secularism while maintaining distinct religious identities. Through transnational networks, including newspapers, magazines, and literary societies, Maronite Mahjari writers connected the Lebanese diaspora across key cities worldwide. They established a strong presence in the press, especially in cities like New York, Paris, São Paulo, and Cairo, where their engagement with political and cultural issues shaped the discourse of the time. Their literary style, often drawing upon allegory, religious symbolism, and mysticism, as seen in Gibran’s works, left a lasting legacy that continues to influence both Eastern and Western literary traditions.
The symbolic use of Lebanon’s cedars, mountains, and villages in Maronite diasporic literature—expressing identity, resilience, and nostalgia—parallels themes found in many works from this period. These writings reflect the Maronite diaspora’s deep connection to their homeland and efforts to preserve their cultural memory. For instance, Khalil Gibran’s al-Sanābil (1929) and Neffaa’s Líbano: Hilvanes para una reseña (1943) both engage with Lebanon’s cultural and historical identity. Likewise, works like Mukhtārāt al-Khawāṭir by Naoum Moukarzel (1932) and O Líbano e os libanêses no Brasil by Tanus Jorge Bastani (1945) underscore the ongoing relationship between the diaspora and Lebanon, linking their personal and communal narratives with the broader sense of Lebanese history and cultural legacy.
Fig. 19.13: Andari, B. (1929). Journey to South America. (Arabic). São Paulo: Abu al-Hawl
Fig. 19.14: Feghali, Y. M. (1934). History of the Great War 1914-1918. (Arabic). São Paulo: Abul al-Hawl
Fig. 19.15: Bastani, T. J. (1945). O Líbano e os libanêses no Brasil. Rio de Janeiro
Fig. 19.16: Bastani, T. J. (1949). Memórias de um mascate. Rio de Janeiro: F. Briguiet et Cia
The rich literary landscape of the Maronite diaspora was further enriched by pioneering women like Afifa Karam in the United States, considered the first Maronite woman to publish in the diaspora. She used her novels Badīʿah wa Fuʾād (1906), Fāṭimah al-Badawīyah (c. 1908), and Ghādat ʿAmshīt (c. 1910) to advocate for women's solidarity and condemn child marriage. May Ziadeh, a prominent feminist and writer in Egypt, published her French poetry book Fleurs de Rêve under the pseudonym Isis Copia (1911) and engaged in influential correspondence with Khalil Gibran. Her intellectual salon in Cairo became a hub for leading thinkers, cementing her legacy as a pioneer of feminist awakening. Najla Abillama founded al-Fajr magazine in 1919, first in Lebanon and later in the US, and was a member of the editorial board of Al-Hudā newspaper, where she became well-known for her weekly column "The Best I Have Read and Heard." Together, these women contributed to literary innovation and propelled social and intellectual change, becoming role models for younger women within the Arab world and the diaspora (Dhākirah lil-Mustaqbal, 2004).
Fig. 19.17: Neffaa, L. (1943). Líbano: Hilvanes para una reseña. Montevideo
Fig. 19.18: Karam, J. B. (1944). Héroe del Líbano: Ensayo histórico-biográfico. Mexico: Ediciones de EMIR
Fig. 19.19: Aued, A. N. (1945). Historia del Líbano. Mexico: Ediciones “Emir”
Fig. 19.20: Nimeh, W. (1946). Historia del Líbano. Mexico
The Mahjar movement’s influence extended far beyond literary innovation. As Saylor (2021) notes, “diasporic writers were not only at the forefront of literary innovation but were also driving intellectual and literary discussions of the Arab Enlightenment.” Similarly, Schmitz (2020) highlights that “the group members’ impact on diasporic Arab journalism, transnational political activism, and the transformation of Arabic literary practice within the Middle East was significant.” Despite this, their broader impact on non-Middle Eastern audiences remains underexplored, though Gibran’s The Prophet is said to be one of the top three bestselling books worldwide, after Shakespeare and Lao-Tzu.
Fig. 19.21: El-Tehelibi (1861).
Arabic Grammar. (Arabic).
ed. by R. Dahdah. Paris
Ultimately, the legacy of Maronite authors in the Mahjar is one of resilience, creativity, and cultural exchange. Their literary contributions have not only shaped Arabic literature but have also enriched the broader landscape of global literature, embodying a narrative of migration, identity, and the enduring power of the written word. Through their works, they have forged connections across borders, created a space for dialogue, and celebrated the complexities of their dual identities, lleaving a profound impact that continues to resonate today.
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