The Maronites were distinguished by their early cultural achievements, particularly in their ability to adapt linguistically across empires. Initially mastering Aramaic/Syriac as their native language, they adopted Greek during the Byzantine Empire and later transitioned to Arabic under successive Islamic Caliphates. In response to the Islamic conquest, the Maronites and other non-Arabic-speaking communities began adapting to Arabic around the 9th century by transcribing it using Syriac characters, a script known as Garshuni (Moukarzel, 2014). This adaptation enabled the Maronites to preserve some of their religious texts while navigating the linguistic landscape of the region. Although much of their early written work has been lost, some have survived and are preserved in various archives.

One notable example is the historical correspondence between the monks of Beth Mārūn (ܒܝܬ ܡܪܘܢ), the central monastery and community of the Maronites at the time, and the monks of affiliated monasteries, with Pope Hormisdas (514–523).  The Latin and Greek texts are preserved in the Collectio Avellana volumes as Letters 139 and 140. Letter 139, written towards the end of 517, serves as a heartfelt appeal to the pope where they express deep distress over the persecution they face, including the martyrdom of 350 individuals. The letter pleads for the Pope to use his authority to restore order and defend the true faith (Horn, 1997). In contrast, Letter 140, dated 10 February 518, is the response from Pope Hormisdas to the monks. In it, he praises the steadfastness of the Syrian clergy and monks amidst persecution, emphasizing the value of suffering for faith. He reaffirms the authority of the Apostolic See, condemns heretical teachings, and urges the faithful to remain resolute, highlighting the importance of adhering to the doctrines established by the Church Fathers (Horn, 1997).

Another significant historical document is the Maronite Chronicle. A single manuscript, dating from the 8th or 9th century, is preserved in the British Library (BM Add. 17216, fols. 2-14). Although partially damaged, with certain sections lost, this Syriac chronicle, written in the style of annals, was composed in the mid-660s (Brooks, 1904). It covers history from the Creation up to around 664 AD, chronicling the war between the early Muslim opponents ʿAlī and Muʿāwiyah (Brooks, 1904). This chronicle provides a unique Maronite perspective on the historical and religious dynamics of its time and offers valuable insights into the early Islamic period and Byzantine-Arab relations.

The Exposition of Faith, known as Kartiso d-haymonuto (ܟܪܛܝܣܐ ܕܗܝܡܢܘܬܐ) 8th century, is a Syriac theological compilation attributed to John Maron (Yūḥannā Mārun), the first Maronite Patriarch. Written in the early 8th century, it shows a clear Antiochian theological lineage extending back to Ephrem (Azize, 2024). The work includes an introduction, a profession of faith, supporting arguments from patristic writings, and explanations of theological concepts, such as the nature of God the Word Incarnate, and responses to various heresies. Although the final quarter of the document is lost, the Exposition demonstrates a deep reliance on patristic tradition, referencing numerous Church Fathers and ecumenical councils to establish doctrinal continuity and defend orthodoxy (Jean Maron, 1988; Azize, 2024).

Kitāb al-Hudā, The Book of Direction (11th century), is a Maronite Nomocanon. It is a compilation attributed to the monk-priest Joseph and was translated from Syriac into Arabic in 1059 by the Maronite bishop David. Although the Syriac text is lost and all known manuscripts are in Arabic written in Garshuni, it consists of canons and laws, liturgical rules, and a short theological treatise dealing with Trinitarian and Christological problems (King, 2018). It is considered the most important document of medieval Maronite canon law (Erdő, 2022).

Kitāb al-Kamāl, The Book of Perfection (ca. 1095), is distinct from Kitāb al-Hudā, despite their joint publication. It provides a summary of Christian belief and practice, organized into four parts and thirteen chapters. Its significance is highlighted by its role in representing and transmitting Christian faith and practice within the Maronite community. Additionally, the structure of the work is noteworthy for the history of Christian-Muslim relations, as it parallels the ‘pillars’ of Islamic practice (Khalil, 1975-1976; 1976).

Al-Maqālāt al-ʿAshr, The Ten Treatises (11th century), of Thomas of Kfartab (Ṭūmāʿ al-Kfartābī) provides insight into the theological debates of the time. Al-Kfartabi, who lived in the Aleppo region of Syria during the latter half of the 11th century and the early 12th century, became the bishop of Aleppo in 1099. His most acclaimed work is The Ten Treatises, written in 1079 in response to correspondences with Jean, the Greek Melkite Patriarch of Antioch, regarding the issue of Christ's wills. While the Melkite Patriarch defended Dyothelitism (the belief that Christ has two wills, one divine and one human), Bishop Thomas supported Monothelitism (the belief that Christ has only one divine will). The Ten Treatises is a refutation of the Melkite Patriarch's position (Soaiby, 1985). In 1104, Thomas traveled to Lebanon, where he spent four years in Yanouh and two years in Jobbet Becharre. 

The linguistic and theological adaptations of the Maronites across different empires highlight their resilience and strategic engagement with changing political and religious landscapes. From their mastery of Aramaic/Syriac to the adoption of Greek, and later Arabic under Islamic rule, the Maronites not only preserved their religious traditions but also ensured their theological and cultural continuity. Through these linguistic and theological adaptations, the Maronites maintained a unique place within the Middle Eastern religious and cultural milieu.

Photo Credits

Fig. 2.1: Manuscript BL Add. 17.216 (8th–9th century). Maronite Chronicle, fols. 2r-14v. Syriac. Folio 6r. Photo taken by Fadi Kmeid.
Fig. 2.2: Manuscript BAV Vat Syr 146 (1392). Exposition of Faith by John Maron, fols. 1r-131r. Syriac and Garshuni. Folio 16v. Photo taken from a microfilm.
Fig. 2.3: Manuscript BnF Syr 203 (1489). Exposition of Faith by John Maron, fols. 1v-163r. Syriac and Garshuni. Folio 1v. Photo available at: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b10091796v/f6.item.
Fig. 2.4: Manuscript Vat Syr 133 (1402). Kitāb al-Hudā or The Book of Direction, fols. 3r-294v. Translated from Syriac into Arabic in 1058/1059. Garshuni. Folio 9r. Photo taken from a microfilm.
Fig. 2.5: Manuscript Vat Syr 146 (1392). The Ten Treatises of Thomas of Kfartab, fols. 131r-164r. Garshuni. Folio 139r. Photo taken from a microfilm.

References

• Azize, J. (2024). On the foundation period of the Maronite tradition. Religions, 15, 596. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15050596
• Brooks, E. W. (1904). Chronica Minor, II (CSCO scr. Syri 3). Louvain, Belgium : CSCO.
• Erdő, P. (2022). The canon law of the Eastern Churches. In A. Winroth & J. C. Wei (Eds.), The Cambridge history of medieval canon law (pp. 142–170). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139177221.010
• Hage Soaiby, P. (1985). Le Monothélisme de Thomas de Kaphartâb dans ses dix chapitres. [Thesis, Universidad Pontificia de Salamanca]. Published in Lebanon, 1953.
• Horn, C. B. (1997, October). The correspondence between the monks of Syria Secunda and Pope Hormisdas in 517/518 A.D. Journal of Maronite Studies (JMS), Maronite Research Institute (MARI). Retrieved from http://www.maronite-institute.org/MARI/JMS/october97/The_Correspondence_Between.htm#2
• Jean Maron. (1988). Exposé de la foi et autres opuscules (M. Breydy, Ed. & Trans.). Louvain: Peeters (CSCO vols 497-498 / Scriptores Syri 209-210).
• Joubeir, A. (1991). Kitab Al-Hudā essai. Université Saint-Esprit, Kaslik.
• Khalil, S. (1975-1976). L'exposé sur la trinité du Kitab al-Kamal : Édition critique. Parole de l'Orient, 6, 257–279.
• Khalil, S. (1976). Kitāb Al-Hudā, Kitab al-Kamal and Kitab al-Namus. Orientalia Christiana Periodica, 42, 207–216.
• King, D. (Ed.). (2018). The Syriac world. Routledge.
• Moukarzel, J. (2014). Maronite Garshuni texts: On their evolution, characteristics, and function. Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies, 17(2), 237–262. Beth Mardutho: The Syriac Institute and Gorgias Press. https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.31826/hug-2015-170114/pdf