The Pen and the Stage: Maronite Avant-Gardists of the Arabic Cultural Renaissance
Building upon the influential role of Maronite journalism in fostering Arabic cultural growth across Lebanon, the Levant, and beyond, this panel explores how early media pioneers laid the groundwork for the flourishing of book publishing, novels, poetry, translations, and other literary forms. Just as newspapers became vehicles for the spread of modern ideas and intellectual exchange, literary works similarly contributed to the Arab Renaissance, or al-Nahda.
In mid-nineteenth-century Beirut, the city’s cosmopolitan evolution deeply influenced its intellectual and literary currents, rising above sectarian boundaries and external pressures. Seen as a "world city," Beirut became a hub for new ideas, shaped by its urban and architectural contrasts. This dynamic setting nurtured political and intellectual writings, where modern concepts of progress and cosmopolitanism were contested and redefined. Key thinkers grappled with tamaddun (civilization), revealing the link between urban change, intellectual development, enlightenment, and modernization. As a result, Beirut witnessed a flourishing of literary and political discourse that reflected modernity and enabled cross-cultural exchange (Sakr, 2019).
Fig. 17.1: G. Zouain, Rosa von Tannenburg (Trans. 1884). Beirut
Fig. 17.2: Chalfoun, Y. (1874). Anis al-Jalis. Beirut
Fig. 17.3: Naqqash, N. (1886). Ottoman law. Beirut
Fig. 17.4: Chartouni, R. (1890). Arabic grammar. Beirut
One of the most profound developments during this period was the translation of famous European works into Arabic. Jacquemond (2004, as cited in Abalrasul, 2019) posits that the narrative of Arab culture, stretching from Rifa’a al-Tahtawi of Egypt (1801–1873) to the contemporary era, can be effectively framed through the lens of translation. The Maronites were deeply engaged in translating Western literature, with Gerges Zwain translating J. C. von Schmid’s Rosa von Tannenburg (1884); Najib Jahchan translating Jean-Baptiste Racine's Athalie (1896); Tannous E. Howayek translating Esther by Jean-Baptiste Racine (n.d.); Tanious Abdo’s translation of Michel Zévaco’s Le chevalier de Pardaillan (1907), among many others, underscored the cross-cultural dialogues shaping modern Arabic thought. However, the most impactful translation of a classic was Sulaiman al-Boustani’s notable translation of Homer’s Iliad in 1904. El-Nowieemy (2011) postulates that al-Bustani's translation holds an outstanding position not only in the history of literature and translation but also in the history of classical studies… [which] also paved the way for creative writings that drew on the classical tradition.”
Fig. 17.5: Homer. (1904). Iliad (S. Boustani, Trans.). Cairo
Fig. 17.6: Mallat, T., & Mallat, C. (1925). Poem collection. Beirut
Fig. 17.7: Shedyaq, T. (1859). History of Mount-Lebanon. Beirut
Fig. 17.8: Saab, H. (1917). Collection of poems. Beirut
This era also witnessed the dawn of theatrical writing and production, which had been largely absent before the pioneering works of the al-Naqqash family. The introduction of theatrical writing to the Arab world marked one of the most significant cultural advances of the 19th century. Scholars widely recognize the birth of Arabic drama with the performance of
Maroun Al-Naqqash’s first play at his home in Beirut in 1847. Al-Naqqash became the forerunner of Arab theater and the first Arab to write plays in the European style (Berg, 2016). His most acclaimed publication,
Arzāt Lubnān (The Cedars of Lebanon), in 1869, contained three plays. After securing permission from the Ottomans, Al-Naqqash established a theater near his Beirut home, where he premiered
Al-Bakhīl (The Miser) in 1847. He went on to produce additional original plays, including
Abu al-Ḥasan al-Mughaffal (Abu Al-Hasan the Gullible) and
Ḥārūn al-Rashīd (Caliph Harun Al-Rashid), an adaptation of
Alf Laylah wa Laylah (One Thousand and One Nights) performed in 1850. His final play, Al-Ṣalīṭ al-Ḥasūd (The Impudent and Jealous Young Man), was staged in 1852 (Fertat, 2011).
Following in his footsteps, Salim Al-Naqqash, the nephew of Al-Naqqash, played a fundamental role in the development of Egyptian theater. He founded "Teatro Masr" at the Zizinia Theater in Alexandria in 1878, making him a key figure in the invention of theater in Egypt. Under Salim’s leadership, the troupe staged performances of notable plays such as Ḥārūn al-Rashīd (Harun Al-Rashid), May, Aida, and Al-Salīṭ wa al-Ḥasūd (The Impudent and Jealous Young Man). The ensemble also performed several works adapted into Arabic including Racine’s Andromaque and Charlemagne, King of France (Abdel Hafiz, 2019). These productions not only showcased original plays but also introduced European classics to Arab audiences, fostering cross-cultural exchange in the arts. Together, Salim and Maroun Al-Naqqash shaped the Arab theatrical landscape and broadened the scope of Arabic drama in the late 19th century, enriching cultural dialogue and artistic expression in the region.
Fig. 17.9: Chartouni, S. (1889). Arabic grammar. Beirut
Fig. 17.10: Farhat, G. (1836). Arabic grammar. Malta
Fig. 17.11: Mas’ad, B. (1863). History of Lebanon and the Maronites. Tamich
Fig. 17.12: Naqqash, M. (1869). The cedar of Lebanon. Beirut
This era also saw the publication of various Arabic grammar books, such as those by
Germanos Farhat (1849),
Salim al-Chartouni (1889),
Rashid al-Chartouni (1890), and
Youssef Geitaoui (1909). These Maronite intellectuals mastered the Arabic language, adapting it as a medium for creativity and effective communication across all segments of society, while modernizing it with contemporary vocabulary, expressions, and stylistic elements. They infused Christian prophetic language into Arabic literary discourse, which not only fostered linguistic, philological, and social discussions but also paved the way for modern Arabic dictionaries and literary forms, as Karam (2011) notes. The same approach was employed by their erudite ancestors, as indicated in Panel 8.
The publications of the mid-19th to early 20th centuries present a rich tapestry of literary genres emerging from the Levant, particularly Lebanon. They solidified national and cultural identity. Similarly, historical narratives like Tannous al-Shedyaq’s History of Mount-Lebanon (1859), Boulos Mas’ad’s History of Lebanon and the Maronites (1863), and Mansour al-Hattouni’s History of Keserwan (1884), and The Enlightenment of Minds in the History of Lebanon (1906), Rashid Choukrallah el-Helou’s History of the Helou Family (1906), and Saab Lahed Khater’s the Geography of Lebanon (1911), among many others, captured the region’s evolving historical and identity perspectives.
Fig. 17.13: Hattouni, M. (1884). History of Keserwan. Beirut
Fig. 17.14: al-Khazen, P. (1902). Book on zajal. Jounieh
Fig. 17.15: Zévaco, M. (1907). Le chevalier de Pardaillan (T. Abdo, Trans.). Cairo
Fig. 17.16: Geitaoui, Y. (1909). Arabic grammar. Beirut
Various literary works with diverse narrative styles and subjects, such as
Youssef Chalfoun’s
Anis al-Jalis (1874),
Youssef Hobeich’s
Literary Traditions in the French and Arab Nations (1890), Youssef F. al-Khazen’s
The Lebanese Breeder's Guide to Silkworm Rearing (1899),
Philippe al-Khazen’s
Book on Zajal (1902),
Youssef al-Gemayel’s
The Cultivation of Turkish Tobacco in Lebanon (1911),
Amin Ghorayeb’s
News and Ideas (1912),
Nassim el-Helou’s
The Collection of Literature in the Rarities of Arab Poets (1912),
Hanna Saab’s
Collection of Poems (1917),
May Ziyadeh’s
Darkness and Rays (1923),
Hind al-Khazen’s
Diaries (1924), and the
collaborative Poem Collection by the
Mallat brothers Tamer and Chibli (1925), further showcase the diversification of literary contributions (Cheikho, 1991).
It is essential to bring attention to three critical aspects of this intellectual revival. First, the contributions of Maronite ecclesiastics and other religious figures were pivotal, particularly in the 19th and early 20th centuries, advancing thought through both religious and secular works (Cheikho, 1991). Second, the revival of Arabic writing was not solely the product of renowned figures but also of a cohort of scribes, lesser-known writers, and journalists whose work in translation and adaptation has often been overshadowed by history’s selective memory (Gonzalez-Quijano, 2007). Third, the dialogue and interaction with Mahjari writers, who were active in various capitals and major cities across the diasporas, played an indispensable role. These emigrant writers acted as cultural intermediaries, further enriching the intellectual and literary landscape (Saylor, 2021).
Fig. 17.17: Ghorayeb, A. (1912). News and ideas. Beirut
Fig. 17.18: Ziyadeh, M. (1923). Darkness and rays. Cairo
Four significant contributions of Maronite intellectuals to the development of culture in the Arab world during the 19th and early 20th centuries can be identified. First, the translation of Western literary works into Arabic served as a crucial medium for introducing modern literary forms and intellectual ideas, facilitating cultural exchange. Second, the emergence of theater and dramatic literature, led by figures such as Maroun and Salim Al-Naqqash, marked a pivotal moment in the evolution of Arabic performing arts. Third, the production of a diverse and extensive body of literature, spanning fields such as history and agriculture, contributed to a broadening of intellectual discourse in the Arab world. Lastly, the rise of female authors, including prominent figures like
May Ziyadeh (Egypt),
Afifa Karam (USA),
Hind al-Khazen (Lebanon),
Afifeh al-Chartouni (Lebanon and Brazil),
Najla Abillama (Lebanon and the US) and others signaled the increasing involvement of women in shaping modern Arabic literary traditions.
References
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